In order to evaluate the effects of methanol and drought stress on CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence parameters, CHLOROPHYLL and relative water CONTENT in sugar beet, a study was conducted in 2008 in Iran. Aqueous solutions 0 (control), 7, 14, 21, 28, 35% (v/v) methanol and each solution contained 0.2% glycine and second factor was drought stress (irrigation after 70% depletion of available water) and normal irrigation (irrigation after 40% depletion of available water). These solutions were sprayed over head 3 times in two week intervals on foliage parts of sugar beet. Results of this experiment indicated that there was not significant difference between levels of solutions on minimum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (f0), fluorescence variable (Fv) and maximum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (fm), but there was significant difference between levels of solutions on photochemical capacity of photosystem 2 (Fv/fm) at 5% probability level.

The doctrine that the CONTENT of the conclusion of a deductively valid argument is included in the CONTENT of its premises, taken jointly, is a familiar one. It has important consequences for the question of what value valid arguments possess, since it indicates the poverty of three traditional answers: that arguments may and should be used as instruments of persuasion, that they may and should be used as instruments of justification; and that they may and should be used to advance knowledge. The truth is, however, that in each of these cases the argument has only a managerial role and, if there is any work done, it is the premises that do it. It will be maintained that this point has little force against the critical rationalist answer, which I shall defend, that the principal purpose of deductive reasoning from an assemblage of premises is the exploration of their CONTENT, facilitating their criticism and rejection. That said, the main aim of the present paper is not to promote critical rationalism but to consider some published objections to the doctrine that a statement asserts every statement that is validly deducible from it. The alleged counterexamples to be considered fall roughly into two groups: statements that emerge with time from a rich mathematical or empirical theory, but were originally unformulated and are deducible from the theory only in a non-trivial way (Frederick 2011, 2014; Williamson 2012); and statements, notably disjunctions, that are easily formulated and are deducible from a theory in a trivial way (Schurz & Weingartner 1987; Mura 1990, 2008; Gemes 1994; Yablo 2014). Each of these counterexamples will be evaluated and dismissed.

To evaluate the effects of methanol and drought stress on CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence parameters, CHLOROPHYLL and relative water CONTENT in sugar beet, a study was conducted in 2008 in Maahdasht (Karaj, Iran). Aqueous solutions of 0 (control), 7, 14, 21, 28, 35% (v/v) methanol with each solution containing 0.2% glycine and a second factor, namely drought stress (irrigation after 70% depletion of available water) and normal irrigation (irrigation after 40% depletion of available water) constituted the treatments. The solutions were sprayed overhead, 3 times in two week intervals on foliage parts of the crop sugar beet. Results indicated that there was no significant difference between levels of solution on minimum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (F0), fluorescence variavle (FV) and maximum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (FM), but there was a significant difference observed between levels of solutions on photochemical capacity of photosystem 2 (FV/FM) at a 5% probability level. Analysis of variance revealed that before a third foliar application, CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT did not show any significant difference, whereas there was a significant difference observed among levels of solutions on CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT after the third application at a 5% probability level.Also results indicated that drought stress significantly decreased photochemical capacity of photosystem 2 (FV/FM), fluorescence variavle (FV) and maximum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (FM) at 5% probability level. As for minimum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (F0) no significant difference was observed between the two levels of irrigation. Also drought stress significantly increased CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT at 5% probability level. Both factors (levels of solution and different irrigation levels) affected relative water CONTENT (RWC) at 1% probability level. The highest correlation was observed between white sugar yield and photochemical capacity of photosystem 2 (FV/FM). In this study interactive effect was not found to be significant.

In order to investigate the effects of methanol application on some physiological properties of soybean under low water stress, a factorial experiment was conducted at Research Field of Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Islamic Azad University-Karaj Branch, Karaj, Iran, during 2008, based on a randomized complete block design with three replications. The first factor was consisted of different levels of methanol equal to 0 (control), 7, 14, 21, 28 and 35 volumetric percentage (v/v), which were used as foliar applications at three times during growth season of soybean, with 15 days intervals. The second factor was water stress conditions in two levels, based on depletion of 40 and 70% of available soil moisture. Some traits such as grain yield (GY), relative water CONTENT (RWC), CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence parameters, and CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT were measured, one day before and after the third methanol application. Results showed that CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT (Chl), GY, electrolytes leakage (EL) at second sampling, photochemical capacity of PSII (Fv/Fm), maximum and variable fluorescence (Fm and FV, respectively) were affected by water stress significantly (p<0.05). As drought severity was increased, mean values of Fv/Fm, Chl and RWC tend to decline, whereas minimum (initial) fluorescence (F0) and El were increased. Methanol foliar application influenced significantly (p<0.05) Chl, GY, Fv/Fm, Fm, Fv, and RWC. There was a positive, high correlation between GY with Fm, Fv/Fm, and also Chl and RWC in both samplings. It seems applying methanol on water stressed soybean plants can reduce harmful effects of drought and improve plant potential to cope with stress.

CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence could be used as an index for evaluation of stress tolerance in plants. A field experiment was conducted using 3 wheat varieties along with seven irrigation levels in a factorial arrangement of a randomized complete block design with four replications. CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence parameters were measured on plant flag leaves about 3 weeks after anthesis. Variations of maximum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (FM), fluorescence variable (FV), minimum CHLOROPHYLL fluorescence (F0),half time of increase from F0 to FM (T1/2) and the photochemical capacity of photo-system II (FV/FM), were evaluated. Relative water CONTENT and flag leaf CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT were measured. Results showed that different irrigation levels affect FV, FV/FM and T1/2 significantly(P £0.05).Both factors of cultivars, and different irrigation levels affected CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT, RWC and grain yield (GY) significantly (p£0.01). Mean FV/FM, FV, T1/2 and FM declined as soil water CONTENT was decreased, but F0 almost remained constant for all the treatments. High yielding varieties exhibited higher values for TI/2, FM, FV/FM, FV, CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT and RWC. The highest correlation coefficient was observed between grain yield and FV as well as FV/FM, while the lowest detected between grain yield and F0.The existence of similar patterns of variation in fluorescence parameters in all varieties indicates that high yielding varieties can overcome the effects of drought stress during grain filling period, this being confirmed by correlation between fluorescence parameters and RWC.

Citrus canker has worldwide distribution and is still a devastating disease caused by the bacteria Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc). With the aim of evaluating C. aurantifolia response mechanism, plant leaves non-inoculated and inoculated with the bacteria were collected in 1, 4, and 7 days post-inoculation. Consequently, the CHLOROPHYLL pigment CONTENT and fluorescence were determined, and proteomics study was conducted. Results indicated that pathogen infection, despite the negative effect on CHLOROPHYLL pigment CONTENT, improved the physiological condition. The maximum efficiency of PSII photochemistry and PSII quantum Yield (YPSII) as well as photochemical quenching increase were observed in infected plants compared to the control, whilst nonphotochemical quantum decreased during infection. Judging by the results, the proteomic analysis revealed that these responses were mirrored by rapid changes in the host proteome that included the up-regulation of carbohydrate metabolism proteins and down-regulation of the ATP generating proteins during pathogen infection. The results indicated that the pathogen manipulates the host homeostasis by its effector proteins to exploit in its favor.

The effect of automobile pollution was determined on CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT of four different tree species viz. Azadirachta indica L., Conocarpus erectus L., Guiacum officinale L. and Eucalyptus sp. growing along the roads of the city. Significant changes in the level of CHLOROPHYLL “a”, CHLOROPHYLL “b” and total CHLOROPHYLL “a+b” were found in the leaves of four tree species (A. indica, C. erectus, G.officinale and Eucalyptus sp.) collected from polluted sites (Airport, Malir Halt, Quaidabad) as compared to control site (Karachi University Campus). Lowest concentration of CHLOROPHYLL “a”, CHLOROPHYLL “b” and CHLOROPHYLL “a+b” was recorded in the leaf samples of all tree species collected from Quaidabad site when compared with the leaf samples collected from control site. The highest levels of CHLOROPHYLL pigment were recorded in all tree species leave samples collected from Karachi University Campus. Similarly, better levels of CHLOROPHYLL “a”, CHLOROPHYLL “b” and total CHLOROPHYLL “a+b” was observed in all tree species growing at Airport site as compared to plants growing at Malir Halt and Quaidabad sites. This study clearly indicated that the vehicular activities induced air pollution problem and affected on the level of CHLOROPHYLL pigments in trees which were exposed to road side pollution.

Fluorescence parameters and CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT are the most important factors to determine the photosynthetic capacity during the life of plants. In this research, the effect of SiO2 nanoparticles was investigated on the characteristics of RWC, membrane stability, photosynthetic pigments and the functioning of photosystem II under sodium chloride salinity stress conditions in five olive cultivars. Two olive cultivars (Koroneiki and Conservalia as salinity-resistant and sensitive controls, respectively) and three selected genotypes (Deira, Kolahfaraj and Shiraz) at two levels of salinity (0 and 150 mM sodium chloride) and three levels of nanoparticles of SiO2 (0, 1 and 2 mM) were investigated. The results showed that in all investigated cultivars, membrane stability and relative water CONTENT decreased in sodium chloride salinity treated plants. On the other hand, the application of SiO2 nanoparticles increased the relative water CONTENT, membrane stability and the amount of photosynthetic pigment in both control and salinity conditions. Shiraz genotype is more tolerant to sodium chloride salinity due to its superiority in most traits related to salinity tolerance compared to other cultivars. The results showed that application of SiO2 nanoparticles increased photosynthetic pigments under salinity stress. In general, it can be concluded that salinity stress reduced the CONTENT of photosynthetic pigments, relative water CONTENT, membrane stability and also the performance of photosystem II, and SiO2 nanoparticles improved these traits. It seems that the application of SiO2 at a concentration of 2 mM reduces the destructive effects of sodium chloride salinity stress in the studied olive cultivars.

In arid and semi-arid areas of the world, excessive mineral aerosol carried by air parcels is a common climatic incident with well-known environmental side effects. In this study, the role of sand-dust accumulation was investigated on various aspects of photosynthetic yield of Plantago lanceolata including CHLOROPHYLL (Chl) a, b, effective quantum yield of PSII photosystem (FPSII), maximal quantum yield of PSII photosystem (Fv/Fm), electron transport rate (ETR), and biomass. P. lanceolata was exposed to a gradient of dust concentrations (0.5 (T1), 1 (T2), and 1.5 g/m3 (T3)) in a dust chamber for a period of 60 days. Results of this experiment indicated that CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT of shoot is negatively correlated with the intensity of the dust exposure. Exposure of plant in T1, T2 and T3 treatments of dust caused a reduction in DF/Fm´ at 4%, 21%, and 26%, respectively. At the same time a reduction of 19%, 22%, and 46% in three treatments was observed for ETR. However, dust accumulation on the plant had not a significant reduction in Fv/Fm. CHLOROPHYLL CONTENT had a significant reduction in the CHLOROPHYLL b. Also, the amounts of reduction in shoot dry mass of T1, T2, and T3 treatments were 26%, 29%, and 32%, respectively, as compared with their respective control.